Pakistan as a purely 'Islamic' State

Bad elements from religious texts could be eliminated through international consents.

The zihadi activity against innocent population, if preached in islam through quran, it

can be eliminated.

Perhaps mohammad paigambar thought of it, to consolidate good people against the

evil; but it became a cause of killing people for selfish moto and monopoly against the

believers of other faith. This Islamic terror activity, and eliminating other faith believers,

can be stopped if the Quran is updated with the consent from world leaders sitting together.

It is possible in the modern world. International courts can take  up such activity on priority

basis. Killing innocent people, how can it be a religion? One can not enforce his belief

on another person, without his will. Seeing other believer, as inferior or superior, itself

is incorrect. Such things are against the coexistence of Human society.

Resignation letter of Jogendra Nath Mandal

1. Before I narrate the remote and immediate causes of my resignation, it may

be useful to give a short background of the important events that have taken

place during the period of my co-operation with the League. Having been approached

by a few prominent League leaders of Bengal in February 1943, I agreed to work

with them in the Bengal Legislative Assembly. After the fall of the Fazlul Haq

ministry in March 1943, with a party of 21 Scheduled Caste M.L.A.s, I agreed to

cooperate with Khwaja Nazimuddin, the then leader of the Muslim League

Parliamentary Party who formed the Cabinet in April 1943. Our co-operation

was conditional on certain specific terms, such as the inclusion of three

Scheduled Caste Ministers in the Cabinet, sanctioning of a sum of Rupees

Five Lakhs as annual recurring grant for the education of the Scheduled Castes,

and the unqualified application of the communal ratio rules in the matter of

appointment to Government services

2. Apart from these terms, the principal objectives that prompted me to work

in co-operation with the Muslim League was, first that the economic interests

of the Muslims in Bengal were generally identical with those of the Scheduled

Castes. Muslims were mostly cultivators and labourers, and so were members

of the Scheduled Castes. One section of Muslims were fishermen, so was a

section of the Scheduled Castes as well, and secondly that the Scheduled Castes

and the Muslims were both educationally backward. I was persuaded that my

co-operation with the League and its Ministry would lead to the undertaking

on a wide scale of legislative and administrative measures which, while promoting

the mutual welfare of the vas bulk of Bengal's population, and undermining

the foundations of vested interest and privilege, would further the cause of

communal peace and harmony. It may be mentioned here that Khwaja Nazimuddin

took three Scheduled Caste Ministers in his cabinet and appointed three

Parliamentary Secretaries from amongst the members of my community.

LAHORE RESOLUTION

7. I must make it clear that I have thought that an attempt would be made, as is

being done at present, to develop Pakistan as a purely 'Islamic' State based on

the Shariat and the injunctions and formulae of Islam. I presumed that it would

be set up in all essentials after the pattern contemplated in the Muslim League

resolution adopted at Lahore on March 23, 1940. That resolution stated inter

alia that (I) "geographically contiguous areas are demarcated into regions which

should be constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary,

that the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the north-western

and eastern zones of India, should be grouped to constitute independent States

in which the Constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign" and (II) "adequate,

effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the Constitution

for minorities in these units and in these regions for the protection of their religious,

cultural, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with

them." Implicitly in this formula were (a) that North western and eastern Muslim zones

should be constituted into two independent States, (b) that the constituent units

of these States should be autonomous and sovereign, (c) that minorities' guarantee

should be in respect of rights as well as of interest and extend to every sphere of

their lives, and (d) that Constitutional provisions should be made in these regards

in consultation with the minorities themselves. I was fortified in my faith in this resolution

and the professions of the League Leadership by the statement Qaid-e-Azam Mohammed

Ali Jinnah was pleased to make on the 11th August 1947 as the President of the Constituent

Assembly giving solemn assurance of equal treatment for Hindus & Muslims alike and

calling upon them to remember that they were all Pakistanis. There was then no question

of dividing he people on the basis of religion into full-fledged Muslim citizens and

zimmies [i][1] being under the perpetual custody of the Islamic State and its Muslims

citizens. Every one of these pledges is being flagrantly violated apparently to your

knowledge and with your approval in complete disregard of the Qaid-e-Azam's wishes

and sentiments and to the detriment and humiliation of the minorities.

PARTITION OF BENGAL

8. It may also be mentioned in this connection that I was opposed to the partition

of Bengal. In launching a campaign in this regard I had to face not only tremendous

resistance from all quarters but also unspeakable abuse, insult and dishonour.

With great regret, I recollect those days when 32 crores of Hindus of this Indo-

Pakistan Sub-continent turned their back against me and dubbed me as the enemy

of Hindus and Hinduism, but I remained undaunted and unmoved in my loyalty

to Pakistan. It is a matter of gratitude that my appeal to 7 million Scheduled Caste

people of Pakistan evoked a ready and enthusiastic response from them. They

lent me their unstinted support sympathy and encouragement

9. After the establishment of Pakistan on August 14, 1947 you formed the Pakistan

Cabinet, in which I was included and Khwaja Nazimuddin formed a provisional Cabinet

for East Bengal. On August 10, I had spoken to Khwaja Nazimuddin at Karachi and

requested him to take 2 Scheduled Caste Ministers in the East Bengal Cabinet. He

promised to do the same sometime later. What happened subsequently in this

regard was a record of unpleasant and disappointing negotiation with you, Khwaja

Nazimuddin and Mr. Nurul Amin, the present Chief Minister of East Bengal. When I

realised that Khwaja Nazimuddin was avoiding the issue on this or that excuse,

I became almost impatient and exasperated. I further discussed the matter with

the Presidents of the Pakistan Muslim League and its East Bengal Branch. Ultimately,

I brought the matter to your notice. You were pleased to discuss the subject with

Khwaja Nazimuddin in my presence at your residence. Khwaja Nazimuddin agreed

to take one Scheduled Caste Minister on his return to Dacca. As I had already

became sceptic about the assurance of Khwaja Nazimuddin, I wanted to be definite

about the time-frame. I insisted that he must act in this regard with a month, failing

which I should be at liberty to resign. Both you and Khwaja Nazimuddin agreed to

the condition. But alas! you did not perhaps mean what you said. Khwaja Nazimuddin

did not keep his promise. After Mr. Nurul Amin had became the Chief Minister of

East Bengal, I again took up the matter with him. He also followed the same old

familiar tactics of evasion. When I again called your attention to this matter prior

to your visit to Dacca in 1949, you were pleased to assure me that Minority Ministers

would be appointed in East Bengal, and you asked 2/3 names from me for consideration.

In stat deference to your wish, I sent you a note stating the Federation Group in the

East Bengal Assembly and suggesting three names. When I made enquiries as

to what had happened on your return from Dacca, you appeared to be very cold

and only remarked : "Let Nurul Amin return from Delhi". After a few days I again

pressed the matter. But you avoided the issue. I was then forced to come to the

conclusion that neither you not Mr. Nurul Amin had any intention to take any Scheduled

Caste Minister in the East Bengal Cabinet. Apart from this, I was noticing that Mr.

Nurul Amin and some League leaders of East Bengal were trying to create disruption

among the Members of the Scheduled Caste Federation. It appeared to me that my

leadership and wide-spread popularity were considered ominous. My outspokenness,

vigilance and sincere efforts to safeguard the interests of the minorities of Pakistan,

in general, and of the Scheduled Caste, in particular, were considered a matter on

annoyance to the East Bengal Govt. and few League leaders. Undaunted, I took

my firm stand to safeguard the interests of the minorities of Pakistan.

ANTI-HINDU POLICY

10. When the question of partition of Bengal arose, the Scheduled Caste people

were alarmed at the anticipated dangerous result of partition. Representation on

their behalf were made to Mr. Suhrawardy, the then Chief Minister of Bengal who

was pleased to issue a statement to the press declaring that none of the rights

and privileges hitherto enjoyed by the Scheduled Caste People would be curtailed

after partition and that they would not only continue to enjoy the existing rights and

privileges but also receive additional advantages. This assurance was given by

Mr. Suhrawardy not only in his personal capacity but also in his capacity as the

Chief Minister of the League Ministry. To my utter regret it is to be stated that after

partition, particularly after the death of Qaid-e-Azam, the Scheduled Castes have

not received a fair deal in any matter. You will recollect that from time to time I brought

the grievances of the Scheduled Castes to your notice. I explained to you on several

occasions the nature of inefficient administration in East Bengal. I made serious

charges against the police administration. I brought to your notice incidents of

barbarous atrocities perpetrated by the police on frivolous grounds. I did not hesitate

to bring to your notice the anti-Hindu policy pursued by the East Bengal Government

especially the police administration and a section of Muslim League leaders.

WOMEN FOR MILITARY

13. The atrocities perpetrated by the police and the military on the innocent Hindus,

especially the Scheduled Castes of Habibgarh in the District of Sylhet deserve description.

Innocent men and women were brutally tortured, some women ravished, their houses raided

and properties looted by the police and the local Muslims. Military pickets were posted in

the area. The military not only oppressed these people and took away stuff forcibly from

Hindu houses, but also forced Hindus to send their women-folk at night to the camp to

satisfy the carnal desires of the military. This fact also I brought to your notice. You assured

me of a report on the matter, but unfortunately no report was forthcoming

STAGGERING DETAILS - NEARLY 10,000 KILLED

22. During my nine days' stay at Dacca, I visited most of the riot-affected areas of

the city and suburbs. I visited Mirpur also under P.S. Tejgaon. The news of the killing

of hundreds of innocent Hindus in trains, on railway lines between Dacca and Narayanganj,

and Dacca and Chittagong gave me the rudest shock. On the second day of Dacca riot,

I met the Chief Minister of East Bengal and requested him to issue immediate instructions

to the District authorities to take all precautionary measures to prevent spreading of the

riot in district towns and rural areas. On the 20th February 1950, I reached Barisal town

and was astounded to know of the happenings in Barisal. In the District town, a number

of Hindu houses were burnt and a large number of Hindus killed. I visited almost all riot-affected

areas in the District. I was simply puzzled to find the havoc wrought by the Muslim rioters

even at places like Kasipur, Madhabpasha and Lakutia which were within a radius of six

miles from the District town and were connected with motorable roads. At the Madhabpasha

Zamindar's house, about 200 people were killed and 40 injured. A place, called Muladi,

witnessed a dreadful hell. At Muladi Bandar alone, the number killed would total more than

three hundred, as was reported to me by the local Muslims including some officers. I

visited Muladi village also, where I found skeletons of dead bodies at some places. I

found dogs and vultures eating corpses on he river-side. I got the information there that

after the whole-scale killing of all adult males, all the young girls were distributed among

the ringleaders of the miscreants. At a place called Kaibartakhali under P.S. Rajapur, 63

persons were killed. Hindu houses within a stone's throw distance from the said thana

office were looted, burnt and inmates killed. All Hindu shops of Babuganj Bazar were looted

and then burnt and a large number of Hindus were killed. From detailed information received,

the conservative estimate of casualties was placed at 2,500 killed in the District of Barisal

alone. Total casualties of Dacca and East Bengal riot were estimated to be in the neighbourhood

of 10,000 killed. The lamentation of women and children who had lost their all including near and

dear ones melted my heart. I only asked myself "What was coming to Pakistan in the name

of Islam."

Birth of chemistry

First universities of the modern world

The University of Padua was founded in 1222 as a school of law and theology. Although 1222 is the first time the university was cited in a historical document, most historian believe that the school was around before that date.

The University of Cambridge which was founded in 1209 grew out of an association of scholars who fled from the University of Oxford after disputes with its townspeople. The school was granted its royal charter in 1231 from King Henry III and it is the second oldest university in the English-speaking world.

The University of Paris was founded in 1150 and operated until 1970 . The school was officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II and recognized by Pope Innocent III in 1215.

The University of Salamanca is the oldest university in Spain and the third oldest university in continuous operation in the world. Like all ancient universities, the University of Salamanca started out as a Cathedral School and was founded in 1130

The University of Oxford or more commonly known as just Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. Although the university has no known foundation date, most historians agree that teaching at Oxford existed in some form since 1096. Around 1167, Oxford rapidly expanded as English students returned home after Henry II banned them from attending the University of Paris.

The University of Bologna is the oldest university in continuous operation and was the first place of study to use the term “universitas”

The school received its charter in 1158, but a committee of 19th century historians traced the university’s founding to 1088.

Giordano Bruno

Ironically, every exoplanet confirms not the cosmology of Kepler, but of Giordano Bruno, the Italian philosopher who was burned alive in Rome, in 1600, as a heretic.

Bruno said the universe has no center, and stars are suns, surrounded by planets and moons. Remarkably, he thus outlined large-scale aspects of our cosmology, while Copernicus and Kepler mistakenly thought the universe is spherical, the sun is its center, unmoving, and stars are not suns surrounded by planets.

“Bruno was not condemned for his defense of the Copernican system of astronomy, nor for his doctrine of the plurality of inhabited worlds.”

Likewise, historian Frances Yates declared: “the legend that Bruno was prosecuted as a philosophical thinker, was burned for his daring views on innumerable worlds or on the movement of the Earth, can no longer stand.”

Bruno was condemned for several heresies, but the one about multiple worlds was the strongest case against him. He didn’t defend an esoteric belief in immaterial worlds. Instead, he asserted parts of our cosmology: our acentric universe has innumerable suns, surrounded by planets, even some that may resemble our inhabited Earth.

Bruno said he inferred the existence of worlds from God’s omnipotence: by having infinite power God made innumerable worlds. Ironically, Bruno’s soaring view of the cosmos—more correct than Copernicus—stemmed from religious beliefs.

Sir Francis Bacon

In 1620, around the time that people first began to look through microscopes, an English politician named Sir Francis Bacon developed a method for philosophers to use in weighing the truthfulness of knowledge. While Bacon agreed with medieval thinkers that humans too often erred in interpreting what their five senses perceived, he also realized that people's sensory experiences provided the best possible means of making sense of the world. Because humans could incorrectly interpret anything they saw, heard, smelled, tasted, or felt, Bacon insisted that they must doubt everything before assuming its truth.

Testing hypotheses

In order to test potential truths, or hypotheses, Bacon devised a method whereby scientists set up experiments to manipulate nature and attempt to prove their hypotheses wrong. For example, in order to test the idea that sickness came from external causes, Bacon argued that scientists should expose healthy people to outside influences such as coldness, wetness, or other sick people to discover if any of these external variables resulted in more people getting sick. Knowing that many different causes for sickness might be missed by humans who are unable or unwilling to perceive them, Bacon insisted that these experiments must be consistently repeated before truth could be known: a scientist must show that patients exposed to a specific variable more frequently got sick again, and again, and again.

Once Bacon's philosophies regarding experimentation and observation came to be accepted, people began using them to harness nature for profit. The study of nature came to be less about changing traditional attitudes and beliefs and more about stimulating the economy. By the end of the following century, the Scientific Revolution had given birth to an Industrial Revolution that dramatically transformed the

Early science and birth of chemistry

1088-Bologna University was founded in Italy.

The University of Bologna is the oldest university in continuous operation and was the first place of study to use the term “universitas”

1096-Oxford University was founded in England.

The University of Oxford or more commonly known as just Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. Although the university has no known foundation date, most historians agree that teaching at Oxford existed in some form since 1096. Around 1167, Oxford rapidly expanded as English students returned home after Henry II banned them from attending the University of Paris.

1164-Salamanca University was founded in Spain.

The University of Salamanca is the oldest university in Spain and the third oldest university in continuous operation in the world. Like all ancient universities, the University of Salamanca started out as a Cathedral School and was founded in 1130.

1209-Cambridge University was founded in England.

The University of Cambridge which was founded in 1209 grew out of an association of scholars who fled from the University of Oxford after disputes with its townspeople. The school was granted its royal charter in 1231 from King Henry III and it is the second oldest university in the English-speaking world.

1222-Padua University was founded in Italy.

The University of Padua was founded in 1222 as a school of law and theology. Although 1222 is the first time the university was cited in a historical document, most historian believe that the school was around before that date.

1224-Neples University was founded in Italy.

1543-Helio centric model of Planets by Copernicus.
        Rapid accumulation of knowledge never happened before 17th century.
1600-Bruno the Italian philosopher and thinker was burned on February 16, in Rome.
        Bruno said the universe has no center, and stars are suns, surrounded by planets and moons. Remarkably, he thus outlined large-scale aspects of our cosmology, while Copernicus and Kepler mistakenly thought the universe is spherical, the sun is its center, unmoving, and stars are not suns surrounded by planets.

Bruno was condemned for several heresies, but the one about multiple worlds was the strongest case against him. He didn’t defend an esoteric belief in immaterial worlds. Instead, he asserted parts of our cosmology: our acentric universe has innumerable suns, surrounded by planets, even some that may resemble our inhabited Earth.

1608-Telscope was invented in Netherland.
1609-Keplers laws of Planetary motion.
1614-Use of logarithms for calculation by Neper.
1620-Francis Bacon experimental science philosophy.
        In 1620, around the time that people first began to look through microscopes, an English politician named Sir Francis Bacon developed a method for philosophers to use in weighing the truthfulness of knowledge. While Bacon agreed with medieval thinkers that humans too often erred in interpreting what their five senses perceived, he also realized that people's sensory experiences provided the best possible means of making sense of the world. Because humans could incorrectly interpret anything they saw, heard, smelled, tasted, or felt, Bacon insisted that they must doubt everything before assuming its truth.

In order to test potential truth, or hypotheses, Bacon devised a method whereby scientists set up experiments to manipulate nature and attempt to prove their hypotheses wrong.

Once Bacon's philosophies regarding experimentation and observation came to be accepted, people began using them to harness nature for profit. The study of nature came to be less about changing traditional attitudes and beliefs and more about stimulating the economy. By the end of the following century, the Scientific Revolution had given birth to an Industrial Revolution.

1638-laws of falling bodies by Galileo Geleli.
1643-Mercury barometer by Torricelli.
1649-Democracy established in England. King Chales was executed.
1660-The royal Society was established in London for improvement of natural knowledge.
1661-Robert Boyle defined element, acid and base concept.
1665-Microscope was invented by Robert Hooke.
1666-French Academy of Science started from Paris. The ore processing was studied there.
1687-newton's laws of motion and law of gravitation.

Birth of chemistry

Demons in the ore: 1742-1751

Miners in the Harz mountains have often been frustrated by a substance which appears to be copper ore but which, when heated, yields none of the expected metal. Even worse, it emits noxious fumes. In about 1735 Georg Brandt is able to show in his Swedish laboratory that the  previously unknown substance was Cobalt. It has been identified, and Brandt gives its name to the new substance - as cobalt

A similar demon is blamed by miners in Saxony for another ore which yields a brittle substance instead of copper. The impurity in ore of this type is analyzed in Sweden in 1751 by Axel Cronstedt. He identifies its components as arsenic and a previously unknown hard white metal, quite distinct from copper. He honours the new substance and calls it nickel.

1754-Joseph Black heated lime-stone and produced his fixed air.

Joseph Black and fixed air: 1754-1756

Black has observed that if he heats chalk (calcium carbonate), he gets quicklime (calcium oxide) and a gas, the presence of which he can identify by its weight. Unwilling as yet to speculate on its identity, he calls it fixed air - because it exists in solid form until released.

1766-Henry Cevendish discovered inflammable gas, the hydrogen.
1773-Sheele isolated oxygen using silver carbonate.
1774-Priestly discovered Oxygen by heating HgO.

Priestley and oxygen: 1774

In August 1774 Priestley directs his lens at some mercury oxide. He discovers that it gives off a colourless gas in which a candle burns with an unusually brilliant light.

In October 1774, visiting Paris with his noble patron, he describes his discovery to a gathering of French scientists. Among them is Lavoisier, who develops Priestley's experiments in his own laboratory and realizes that he has the evidence to disprove the phlogiston theory.

1775-Micro-Organisms observed using Microscope.

Lavoisier: 1777-1794

Although Antoine Laurent Lavoisier has no single glamorous discovery to add lustre to his name (such as identifying oxygen), he is regarded as the father of modern chemistry. The reason is that during the last two decades of the 18th century he interprets the findings of his colleagues with more scientific clarity than they have mustered, and creates the rational framework within which chemistry can develop.

1778-Lavoisier named the elements, hydrogen Oxygen and Nitrogen. He announced that air is composed of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen.
He explained the combustion. He concluded that during calcination, metals absorb oxygen and increase their weight.

He was able to show that Priestley's gas is involved in chemical reactions in the processes of burning and rusting, and that it is transformed in both burning and breathing into the 'fixed air' discovered by Joseph Black. His researches with phosphorus and Sulphur cause him to believe that the new gas is invariably a component of acids. He therefore gives it in 1777 the name oxygen ( 'acid maker'). On a similar principle Lavoisier coins the word hydrogen ('water maker') for the very light gas isolated by Cavendish.

With these two names chemistry takes a clear and decisive step into the modern era. It is an advance which Lavoisier soon consolidates.

1781-Cavendish synthesized water by burning Hydrogen in Oxygen.

Cavendish mixes hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion 2:1, in a glass globe through which he passes an electric spark. The resulting chemical reaction leaves him with water, which stands revealed as a compound (H2O).

1782-Lavoisier established the law of conservation of mass.
He said, "In a chemical change nothing is lost and nothing is created and everything is transformed.”

He was considered the father of modern chemistry.
1789-For the first time, He Made a list of 23 known elements. He wrote the elementary treatise of chemistry. This text clarified the concept of element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis.

1793-Alessandro Volta, an Italian Physicist and chemist, discovered the Principle of primary battery. In 1800, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Volta's method of stacking round plates of copper and zinc separated by disks of cardboard moistened with salt solution was termed a voltaic pile.

Thus, Volta is considered to be the founder of the discipline of electrochemistry. A Galvanic cell (or voltaic cell) is an electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous redox reaction taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane.

1794-Lavoisier was executed in French revolution.

1803-The law of multiple proportion by Dalton.
The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory.
1803-Dalton's atomic theory.

In 1803, an English meteorologist began to speculate on the phenomenon of water vapor. John Dalton (1766-1844) was aware that water vapor is part of the atmosphere, but experiments showed that water vapor would not form in certain other gases. He speculated that this had something to do with the number of particles present in those gases. Perhaps there was no room in those gases for particles of water vapor to penetrate. There were either more particles in the “heavier” gases or those particles were larger. Using his own data and the Law of Definite Proportions, he determined the relative masses of particles for six of the known elements: hydrogen (the lightest and assigned a mass of 1), oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous. Dalton explained his findings by stating the principles of the first atomic theory of matter.

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass and other properties. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
3. Atoms cannot be created, subdivided or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to form chemical compounds.
5. In chemical reactions atoms are combined, separated or rearranged to form new compounds

        Dalton  proposed a modern atomic theory in 1803 which stated that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles termed atoms, atoms of a given element possess unique characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules).

1804-French chemist Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds, based on several experiments conducted between 1797 and 1804.

In chemistry, the law of definite proportion, sometimes called Proust's law or the law of definite composition, or law of constant composition states that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in fixed ratio (by mass) and does not depend on its source and method of preparation.

1808- Law of combining volumes by Gay-Lussac.
        Gay-Lussac announced what was probably his single greatest achievement: from his own and others' experiments he deduced that gases at constant temperature and pressure combine in simple numerical proportions by volume, and the resulting product or products—if gases—also bear a simple proportion by volume to the volumes of the reactants. In other words, gases under equal conditions of temperature and pressure react with one another in volume ratios of small whole numbers. This conclusion subsequently became known as "Gay-Lussac's law" or the "Law of Combining Volumes".

1811-Avogadro's law which states that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure must contain the same number of particles.
        Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856), hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules, from which it followed that relative molecular weights of any two gases are the same as the ratio of the densities of the two gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure

1812-using Volta's battery, Humphry Davy isolated new elements like,potassium,Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Boron.
        He went on to electrolyze molten salts and discovered several new metals, including sodium and potassium, highly reactive elements known as the alkali metals. During the first half of 1808, Davy conducted a series of further electrolysis experiments on alkaline earths including lime, magnesia, strontites and barytes. On 30 June 1808 Davy reported to the Royal Society that he had successfully isolated four new metals which he named barium, calcium, strontium and magnesium. The observations gathered from these experiments also led to Davy isolating boron in 1809
1817-Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish Chemist.
Berzelius, [disciple of Dalton], named the elements and used symbols to represent elements in a chemical formula. He also calculated atomic weights of different elements.

Berzelius began his career as a physician but his researches in physical chemistry were of lasting significance in the development of the subject. He is especially noted for his determination of atomic weights; his experiments led to a more complete depiction of the principles of stoichiometry, or the field of chemical combining proportions. In 1803 Berzelius demonstrated the power of an electrochemical cell to decompose chemicals into pairs of electrically opposite constituents.

Berzelius's work with atomic weights and his theory of electrochemical dualism led to his development of a modern system of chemical formula notation that could portray the composition of any compound both qualitatively (by showing its electrochemically opposing ingredients) and quantitatively (by showing the proportions in which the ingredients were united). His system abbreviated the Latin names of the elements with one or two letters and applied subscripts to designate the number of atoms of each element present in both the acidic and basic ingredients

1834-Michael Faraday
Faraday discovered that when electricity is passed through ionic solutions, the amount of chemical change produced was proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through it.

Electrochemistry, branch of chemistry concerned with the relation between electricity and chemical change. Many spontaneously occurring chemical reactions liberate electrical energy, and some of these reactions are used in batteries and fuel cells to produce electric power. Conversely, electric current can be utilized to bring about many chemical reactions that do not occur spontaneously. In the process called electrolysis, electrical energy is converted directly into chemical energy, which is stored in the products of the reaction. This process is applied in refining metals, in electroplating, and in producing hydrogen and oxygen from water.

Faraday's law stating that “the amount of any substance deposited or liberated during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed and to the equivalent weight of the substance.”

Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis. The mass of the substance (m) deposited or liberated at any electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity or charge (Q) passed. ... Faraday further observed that 1 Faraday (96,485C) of charge liberates 1 gram equivalent of the substance at the electrodes.
 
Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis states that the chemical deposition due to the flow of current through an electrolyte is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity (coulombs) passed through it.

Faraday’s second law of electrolysis states that, when the same quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the mass of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent or equivalent weight.

Chemical Equivalent or Equivalent Weight

The chemical equivalent or equivalent weight of a substance can be determined by Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, and it is defined as the weight of that subtenancy which will combine with or displace the unit weight of hydrogen.

The chemical equivalent of hydrogen is, thus, unity. Since valency of a substance is equal to the number of hydrogen atoms, which it can replace or with which it can combine, the chemical equivalent of a substance, therefore may be defined as the ratio of its atomic weight to its valency.

1841-chemical society was founded in England.
1845-the Royal college of chemistry was founded.
1851-The Royal School of Mines was established in London

1852-concept of valency by Edward Frankland.

Research beginning about 1850 led him to the idea that an atom of an element can combine only with a certain limited number of atoms of other elements. He thus established a theory of valency (1852), which became the basis of modern structural chemistry.

In 1866 he published an influential textbook, Lecture Notes, in which he adopted Crum Brown’s graphic (structural) formulas and argued (against Kekulé) that elements could exhibit more than one valence below a fixed upper maximum.

From 1863 to 1870 he and Baldwin Duppa exploited zinc ethyl and other organic reagents, including ethyl acetate, in the synthesis of ethers, dicarboxylic acids, unsaturated monocarboxylic acids, and hydroxy acids. This meticulous work revealed clearly the structure and relationship of these compounds, and of course its methodology had great bearing on the growth of the chemical industry.

Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs.

1860-world's first chemical conference held in Europe [Karlsruhe Congress] by Kekule. 140 delegates participated in it. The young Siberian Mendeleyev was also present in the meet.

An important long-term result of the Karlsruhe Congress was the adoption of the now-familiar atomic weights. Prior to the Karlsruhe meeting, and going back to Dalton's work in 1803, several systems of atomic weights were in use. In one case, a value of 1 was adopted as the weight of hydrogen (the base unit), with 6 for carbon and 8 for oxygen. As long as there were uncertainties over atomic weights then the compositions of many compounds remained in doubt. Following the Karlsruhe meeting, values of about 1 for hydrogen, 12 for carbon, 16 for oxygen, and so forth were adopted. This was based on a recognition that certain elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, were composed of diatomic molecules and not individual atoms.

Rocke says. “If you believed Avogadro’s theory, then you could get the correct molecular formula for molecules, as well as the correct atomic weights, which was the groundwork required to construct the periodic table,“ he says.

When the 1860 conference began, chemistry was in a total state of disarray.

Participants broke into groups to discuss contentious issues, such as stoichiometry or representation of molecular formulas, and then they would return to the plenary hall to share their deliberations, Podlech says. However, sometimes a group’s consensus was undermined by the presenter’s personal opinions

In fact, the conference was mostly dominated by voices from the old guard—so much so that the organizers began to fear their efforts were in vain and that the conference was going to be a complete failure. But just before the meeting’s close, a relatively unknown Italian chemist named Stanislao Cannizzaro gave a long, impassioned, and eloquent lecture that argued for Avogadro’s perspective on molecules. After Cannizzaro’s lecture, one of his friends handed out a paper that effectively reiterated his speech and that several important delegates read on their trips home.

“It was as though the scales fell from my eyes; doubt vanished, and it was replaced by a feeling of peaceful certainty,“ wrote Meyer, who would later go on to construct a correct periodic table around the same time as Mendeleev put his together. Mendeleev wrote that the meeting “produced such a remarkable effect on the history of our science that I consider it a duty ... to describe all the sessions ... and the results.“

But Cannizzaro’s plea needed some time to sink in, and it took about a decade before scientists hashed out the correct molecular weights that enabled the periodic table to emerge. “On that last day in Karlsruhe, there were no cheers, no sudden enlightenment, no ovation,” Rocke notes. “The assembled chemists simply quietly filed out of the hall and went home.

The Karlsruhe meeting was the first international meeting of chemists and that it led to the eventual founding of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

Later, German chemist Lothar Meyer, and the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who had both been in attendance at Karlsruhe, constructed element arrangements using the Cannizzaro numbers - on tables: with the elements arranged in rows and columns - for schoolbooks.

1869-Mendeleyev constructed the periodic table of elements, based on increasing         atomic weights of elements.
1898-discovery of Nobel gases by William Ramsay.